You’re standing alongside the canal, the air sharp with the chill of winter. Your breath forms clouds in the frigid air as you huddle deeper into your coat, anxiously awaiting the first flower merchant. The stakes are high; if you don’t secure a contract for bulbs today, your chances are gone. It’s Amsterdam in the winter of 1636, and tulips have become the fastest-selling and most expensive commodity in the world.

A Tulip’s Homeland

Tulips are famous among the Dutch today, who still have the largest tulip economy worldwide, with over two billion bulbs shipped internationally each year. Tulips also bring a rapid increase in tourism. In 2017, there were a record 1.4 million visitors to see the blooms. But tulips aren’t native to the Netherlands. 

The history of tulips is as colorful as the flowers themselves. The flowers made a long journey from the fields of Central Asia, first to Austria, then eventually as far as Holland. Tulips are native to Central Asia, predominantly in countries like Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Iran, and the Levant region. The Ottoman Empire presented Austria with the first bulbs brought to Europe. The shape of the flower, resembling the turbans worn by men in the Ottoman Empire, led to the derivation of its Latin name from the Turkish word for turban.

Travel to Holland

The vibrant colors of the petals and the unique shape of the flower itself charmed diplomats and wealthy merchants, making the flower popular. These enchanting flowers soon blossomed across the entire continent. Leiden University persuaded Dutch botanist Carolus Clusius to create a botanical garden for the college. In 1593, Clusius planted the first tulips in Holland. He also traded bulbs with friends and colleagues, the appeal for the brightly colored flower growing. The tulip quickly became a status symbol amongst the wealthy, who could show off their wealth with rare and expensive color combinations. 

The most expensive tulip bulb was the Semper Augustus, a red bulb with white tiger stripes. In fact, the multi-colored bulbs sold the most. They mainly resulted from random occurrences, but they could be cultivated from other tulips in the same family. The streaks made the plants appear more exotic, resulting in higher prices. This effect is caused by a tulip-specific mosaic virus, which also causes flower infertility. With demand for the flower up, prices rose as well, and soon tulips were being sold even before they bloomed. This created the world’s first forward market, in which goods were sold before they were available and exchanged hands through written contracts. The concept of a forward market was revolutionary. It allowed for merchants and buyers to buy and sell goods based on future prices, which was all speculative. This kind of trade was risky and led to an economic bubble that is still widely studied today as an example of the dangers of speculative investment.

The Tulip Bubble

In winter 1636-37, tulip prices spiked with these contracts, and tulip bulbs were going as high as 5,000 guilders per bulb, the equivalent of a grand house on the canal. This was a purely speculative market, and the first of its kind. A speculative market happens when consumers purchase a good, hoping its value will increase significantly. The dramatic rise and fall of tulip prices created a financial frenzy. People had mortgaged their homes, sold businesses, and even traded belongings in order to invest in tulip bulbs. During the market crash, many defaulted on loans. Buyers refused to honor their contracts, where they had originally promised 500 or 1,000 guilders for bulbs. This led to many florists and merchants losing out on their investments.

There wasn’t a major impact on widespread Dutch society, having really only affected the wealthy who could have afforded to get into the business, anyway. The tulip was a symbol of wealth. Because of this, the rich were the most significantly impacted, and a lot of them lost their fortunes. Outside of the tulip bubble, life in the Netherlands went on as normal, without the frenzied crowds of tulip buyers.

Tulips in Holland Today

Today, tulips make up a big part of Dutch culture. Every year when the tulips bloom, millions of tourists visit the tulip fields, and florists distribute these tulips all over the world. Despite the crash, tulips seem to be a lucrative business. There are massive flower festivals during the springtime, where the festivities serve as remembrance to the tulipmania of the seventeenth century. Tulips pop up everywhere in Dutch culture, from holiday activities to massive floats, showing the passion the Dutch have for the vibrant flower.

Besides their economic and cultural significance, tulips have inspired a wealth of artistic expression. Dutch artists of the Golden Age, such as Rembrandt and Vermeer, often included tulips in their paintings. This legacy continues today, with tulips appearing in contemporary art, fashion, and design. Their imagery can be found in tourist shops and planted near the canals, inspiring artists from all over the world.

The impact of tulipmania can also be seen in modern financial markets. It is a widely studied phenomenon that provides a valuable insight into speculative bubbles for investors and economists. The frenzy and subsequent crash showcase the dangers of speculation and the importance of market regulation. Even though centuries have passed, the tulip bubble of 1637 remains an increasingly relevant part of history, reminding us of the complexities and risks of financial markets.

In conclusion, the story of the tulip is one of beauty, innovation, and resilience. From their origins in the mountains of Central Asia to their status as a cultural and economic icon in the Netherlands, tulips have captured the imagination of people around the world. As we look to a greener future, the tulip will undoubtedly continue to bloom brightly in gardens, markets, and hearts around the globe.

Palestinian embroidery, called tatreez in Arabic, has a long-standing history with the Palestinian people and their connection to the land of historical Palestine. Tatreez is an important symbol of Palestinian resilience and resistance to the ongoing Israeli occupation, and is common throughout Palestine and amongst its diaspora.

Tatreez has origins that dates back to the Canaanite era over 3,000 years ago, but it really began to be am identifiable part of Palestinian culture during the mid-1800s. It has been passed down by mothers through their daughters for generations, evolving over time from being a symbol of regional pride to a symbol of Palestinian nationalism.

The patterns and colors used on traditional dresses identified where the woman was from. Early inspiration came from landscapes around the villages, with mountains common in cities like Hebron, and palm trees common in Ramallah. Ramallah was also known for its use of a bright deep red color in its stitching. In Bethlehem, the star of Bethlehem was a common motif. These Levantine symbols were understood to function as matrilineal heritage but also represented trade routes and textile developments. Traditionally, unmarried women used blue thread, married women used red, and widowed women stitched over the red with blue thread. Cross-stitching is the most renowned form of Palestinian tatreez, but other common stitches include manajel (connecting stitch), tashreem (patchwork stitch), and jadleh (hemming stitch).

Because of the different symbols and patterns, tatreez represents the identity of Palestine and its people. Women came together and created places of community as they stitched in each other’s homes, often with their daughters. With limited transportation around parts of Palestine, each region had a distinct way of embroidering their clothing that represented this identity and community.

Women stitched embroidery onto traditional Palestinian dresses called thobes. The chest, sleeves, and cuffs were covered with embroidery, using cotton or silk thread. On special occasions, golden or silver threads were used to embroider intricate designs into their dresses. The designs and colors indicated the woman’s regional identity, as well as marital and economic status. Wedding dresses had layers upon layers of embroidered material woven with coral beads, and gold and silver coins.

After the Nakba in 1948, when 700,000 Palestinians were displaced by Zionist militias, tatreez became a symbol of Palestinian resilience and resistance. Women continued to wear their thobes as a statement of the existence of the villages that were inevitably destroyed or occupied by Israeli settlers. After 1948, the Palestinian flag could not be shown, so women began to weave it and its colors into their clothing. In refugee camps, a new style known as the New Dress emerged that reflected designs from all over Palestine, making a new kind of dress that was unmistakably Palestinian but from no identifiable region — simply Palestinian. Skills continue to be preserved and passed down from mothers to daughters, and organizations like the Thobe Project in the United States also educate and teach tatreez skills across the diaspora.

Palestinian embroidery plays a key role in the legacy of Palestine traditions that would otherwise have been lost in the diaspora. It represents a means of unifying Palestinians, as well as continues to show their resilience. Prior to the expulsion of almost three quarters of a million people, Palestine was a state full of life, culture, and traditions that continue to persist despite the goals of Zionism. Even down to their clothing, Palestinians have always had a deep connection to the land of their birthright.

Sources

Bayt Al Fann. (n.d.). The Art of Tatreez — Palestinian Embroidery. Retrieved January 21, 2024, from https://www.baytalfann.com/post/the-art-of-tatreez-palestinian-embroidery

Handmade Palestine. (2022, May 26). Traditional Embroidery: A Brief History of Palestinian Tatreez. Retrieved January 21, 2024, from https://handmadepalestine.com/blogs/news/tatreez

PalQuest. (n.d.). Palestinian Embroidery. Retrieved January 21, 2024, from https://www.palquest.org/en/highlight/14497/palestinian-embroidery

Tatreez Archive. (n.d.). Homepage. Retrieved January 21, 2024, from https://tatreezarchive.org/

UNESCO. (n.d.). The art of embroidery in Palestine, practices, skills, knowledge and rituals — intangible heritage — Culture Sector. Retrieved January 21, 2024, from https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/the-art-of-embroidery-

In the late sixteenth century, the myth of a golden city in the Spanish New World captivated all. For Europeans, finding the city meant unimaginable riches, even more unimaginable than what they already experienced in their exploration of the new continent. On his deathbed, a Spaniard named Juan Martinez told of a city and nearby lake filled with gold, with so much abundance of the metal that the indigenous people tossed it into the lake during religious ceremonies. His story fascinated Sir Walter Raleigh, an English explorer popularly known in the United States for his discovery and subsequent settlement in present-day North Carolina. People have been fascinated by the myth of El Dorado for centuries, and it has become synonymous with an unachievable metaphorical goal. But where did it originate from? In this article, we’ll explore the origins of the myth itself, as well as the impact it has had on the continent and the values it represents.

The Origins of El Dorado

The indigenous people of the Americas had a different relationship with gold than the Europeans did. Throughout the continent, gold was plentiful and not used to convey wealth. Instead, gold was used in many rituals and to showcase the status of the elite. Since gold was so accessible, Europeans began to fantasize about the immense wealth they could create by bringing it back to Europe.

The Muisca people, an indigenous tribe near modern-day Bogota, had a unique ceremony to crown their chief, which involved coating their new ruler in a layer of fine golden dust, then washing it off in the waters of Lake Guatavita. As he bathed, golden objects were thrown into the lake as offerings to the gods. In 1638, Juan Rodriguez Freyle, a Spaniard born in the New Kingdom of Granada, wrote of the ceremony using the term El Rey Dorado to refer to the king.

Prior to the Spanish invasion of the Americas, gold was primarily used to affirm the status of the elite. The Spanish noted the indigenous use and abundance of gold long before the first stories of El Dorado came to be. In various indigenous cultures, gold also held many spiritual properties, and were used extensively in Pre-Columbian art. The abundance of gold and other precious gems, such as emeralds, lead Spaniards to believe in a city of gold.

The Muisca people were expert goldsmiths, able to create intricate pieces of art with the metal. They were able to make sophisticated pieces of jewelry and headpieces that normally would have withstood the test of time. Many of these artifacts, when discovered, were melted down into ingots to be used as currency. The insatiable greed that the Spaniards came with transformed indigenous cultural practices into a quest for a city of gold that would cost many lives and lead one man to execution, all in the search for El Dorado.

The Search for El Dorado

Many explorers sought the city of Manõa, where El Dorado was believed to exist, and many lost their lives. After the Incan Empire (modern day Peru) was conquered in the sixteenth century by Francisco Pizarro, the immense wealth that came out of it inspired more people to search for El Dorado. In 1540, Spanish explorers Gonzalo Pizarro, the half-brother to Francisco Pizarro, and Francisco de Orellana led an expedition to explore the lands to the east. They left the settlement of Quito (modern day Ecuador) and mapped most of northern South America.

Eventually, Pizarro dropped out and went home, with de Orellana continuing the expedition by himself. Today, de Orellana is credited with the discovery of the Amazon River, though there are many indigenous cultures and traditions that show that the river was known and used by the indigenous population prior to this expedition. He named the river after the myth of an all-woman warrior tribe known as the Amazons, since the expedition was attacked by woman warriors.

Another notable expedition was led by Sir Walter Raleigh, a British explorer who is well-known in the United States for his settlement of Roanoke. Raleigh was a close acquaintance with Queen Elizabeth I, and convinced her he could find the lost city of gold that was rumored to exist in the Southern New World. At the time, colonization of the New World was in full swing, and many explorers led expeditions throughout the continent to claim more land for royalty back in Europe, as well as gaining more wealth for the explorers themselves. Raleigh’s expeditions were part of the larger European scramble for wealth following the conquest of the Incan Empire, and the riches this conquest brought Spain.

Raleigh eventually led two failed expeditions, one in 1595 and another in 1617. On his second expedition, there was a clash with Spanish explorers, leading to Raleigh’s son being murdered. Raleigh returned to England where he was executed under orders of King James for inciting violence against Spaniards.

The explorers never discovered the city of Manõa, or the mythical city of El Dorado. They did, however, find Lake Guatavita, the site of the religious ceremonies held by the Muisca people, in 1545. They attempted to drain the lake, and found countless golden artifacts lining the shore, supporting the legends told by the descendants of the Muisca people. This discovery did not lead to El Dorado.

These expeditions led to the myth only growing in South America, with maps being produced at the time with El Dorado marked in various locations, such as Lake Parime. This made people believe that the location had been confirmed, and many traveled throughout the region to see the city themselves.

For over two centuries, the myth of El Dorado captivated Europeans arriving in the region, and they truly believed this city of immense wealth existed. While the European explorers failed to find El Dorado, their relentless search led to profound consequences for the indigenous populations of South America.

The Impact on Indigenous Populations

The myth of El Dorado remains a foundational myth of the Americas, but it also highlights obsessive quests and colonial violence. During the brutal colonization of the Americas that led to indigenous genocide, rumors of a kingdom abundant in gold and precious stone only encouraged the European mindset of individualism, greed, and brutality that they brought with them to the continent.

Despite never being found, the myth of El Dorado continues to glorify the invasion of the continent that displaced countless indigenous lives and had little regard for the environment they were exploiting. The search for wealth that was not explicitly theirs, but they felt they were entitled to remains a constant in modern Western imperialism, which has now spread all over the world.

The indigenous cultures, traditions, and legends that were destroyed during this genocide are now lost, despite a small amount of the population still surviving, usually in the mountainous regions the Spaniards could not reach. 

The myth of El Dorado incited violence even in the most rural parts of South America, with precious artifacts being stolen from indigenous communities that did not have a means to defend themselves against the brutality of Europeans and the diseases they brought with them.

These expeditions brought European war customs that indigenous communities were not used to, including but not limited to the targeting and killing of men and boys within their communities and the rape of their women, for the gold in the village Europeans believed was theirs.

In 2021, a photo taken from the International Space Station showed areas of gold near the Amazon River, but these were later determined to be extensive and illegal gold mining operations that were devastating the Amazon forest and taking advantage of the indigenous communities in the area.

The rate of forest loss has more than tripled since gold prices rose in 2008, mostly driven by these illegal mining operations that benefit those of European descent in the Americas. These operations take place with the continued theft of indigenous lands and erasure of communities. Even today, colonization continues to have devastating effects on the continent.

The Role of El Dorado in Media & Metaphors

Today, El Dorado is used as a metaphor for an unattainable quest. It is a common theme in various artistic projects and mediums, inspiring countless writers, movie directors, musicians, and even game designers.

El Dorado tends to be shown as a mythical place of unimaginable riches, such as the Fountain of Youth, The Holy Grail, or Shangri-La. All these myths bear some resemblance to each other, but also showcase the European’s insatiable quest for wealth and discovery. The story of El Dorado represents something that may not even exist, representing true love, heaven, happiness, or even success.

The myth of El Dorado was largely discredited by the 19th century, and the number of expeditions fell as more and more realized the city did not exist. Today, El Dorado remains both a metaphor for an unattainable quest, as well as a dark story of the colonization of the American continent and the values it brought.

Modern-day gold work in Colombia remains unparalleled, and the shiny element still holds significance in indigenous cultures of the region. The quality of the metal and the techniques used to craft artistic pieces are considered to be the most exceptional in the world, but now that wealth is in the hands of European descendants rather than the indigenous communities.

The city of gold has transformed South America to be a center for greed and consumerism that is crucial to modern societies that descended from colonization efforts. The myth of El Dorado serves as a cautionary tale about the destructive nature of greed and the exploitation of both people and resources. As modern illegal mining operations continue to devastate the Amazon and displace indigenous communities, the lessons of El Dorado remain more relevant than ever.

The night air was still crisp with the cold of winter, and the cart driver huddled underneath his cloak. The only thing lighting his path—and keeping him warm—was the flame of the lantern that sat next to him in the seat. He wouldn’t dare draw attention to himself on these dark roads that were leading him further from the Papal State and closer to his goal. He had a mission tonight that would bring a famous Florentine man back home. Concealed in a bale of hay behind him was the body of Michelangelo. 

Born in 1475, Michelangelo today is one of the most well-known Italian sculptors, painters, architects, and poets of the High Renaissance period. He was born in the Republic of Florence, and achieved fame early in his life. Despite being one of the highest-achieving artists, it is what happened after his death that makes Michelangelo stand out the most.

By the end of his life, Michelangelo had been living in Rome for three decades. Despite being wealthy and a prominent figure in Florence, Michelangelo despised the Medici's rule, and designed city fortifications to keep them out of the city between 1528 and 1529. In 1530, the Medici regained power and Michelangelo went into hiding. He decided to move to Rome, gaining citizenship in 1537.

During his time in Rome, Michelangelo created The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel, and other notable works. He handled many architectural projects in Rome, such as Capitoline Hill and the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. In 1546, the pope appointed him as the architect of St. Peter’s Basilica.

In February 1564, Michelangelo’s passing left behind various unfinished works and created uncertainty about where his body would be laid to rest. Pope Pius IV erected a special monumental tomb in St. Peter’s Basilica, and there was a lavish state funeral conducted in his honor.

Lionardo Buonarroti, the nephew and heir of Michelangelo, knew that his uncle wanted to be buried in his home of Florence. Despite this, Rome refused to have the body transferred.

Working with Duke Cosimo I de Medici, Lionardo conspired to have the body stolen from the crypt in Rome and transported to the Duchy of Florence. Both men wanted to honor Michelangelo, but also wanted Florence to be the resting place of the legendary artist.

Though we know Italy is unified today, this wasn’t the case during the Italian Renaissance. Florence and Rome were considered to be two separate kingdoms, one ruled by the Medicis and the other ruled by the Pope. Having an important figure buried in the kingdom meant having a source of civic pride and political power. Michelangelo himself had a strong desire for his own legacy to endure, and he depicted this in various self-portraits in his works, primarily in the Vatican.

On a late night in early March, Lionardo and a singular bodyguard entered the Santi Apostoli church in Rome. Outside, a driver waited with a cart filled with hay. After an exorbitant funeral, the Pope commissioned a tomb where Michelangelo was laid to rest. Together, Lionardo and the bodyguard carefully extracted the body from the tomb and hid it in the bale of hay. Only the driver and the bodyguard would return with the body, while Lionardo would find a different way to return to Florence.

They set off into the night on a 280 kilometer journey, roughly 175 miles. They completed the journey in four days, and when the body arrived in Florence, people were shocked at the state of the body. Legends spread about the bodies of saints in Renaissance Italy. Stories stated that a body of a saint would never decay, and would still smell fresh. Although Michelangelo had been dead for over twenty days, onlookers were astonished to see that his body had not decayed and there was no smell when they removed it from the hay. This cemented Michelangelo’s importance and legacy in Italian history, and proved the significance of bringing him back to Florence.

In a second extravagant ceremony in his home, they honored Michelangelo and eventually laid him to rest in Santa Croce. His monumental tomb was designed by Giorgio Vasari, with three intertwined laurel wreaths representing painting, sculpture, and architecture, the three mediums of art Michelangelo left a lasting impression on.

This story shows us the complex relationship between death, fame, and legacy. When someone as famous as Michelangelo passes, their body is a treasure that many seek. Though the story of Michelangelo’s last journey seems amusing to most, it shows how the world strives to possess pieces of greatness, long after the artist is gone. Though the soul has passed, his fame remains in the great art we still have today, a legacy that has lasted longer than most will ever achieve.

Florence is a city where every street whispers a love letter from the past. It creates a sense of romanticism and inspiration in even the least-creative hearts. The day I stepped off the train in Florence ended up being one of the hottest days of the summer. Still, my body slick with sweat and my shoulders aching, I found myself content with getting lost in the streets to my hostel, savoring the sights and sounds of the city.

Any artist, history lover, or art connoisseur knows the story of Florence, but it is a completely unique experience to actually walk through the streets itself. Florence has been home to Rafael, Donatello, Botticelli, Giotto, Da Vinci, and many more famous names. Florence is also famous for being the home of the famous Medici family, a powerful political dynasty of the Kingdom of Italy. The city is well known for being the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance.

For travelers obsessed with history like I am, you know that getting to learn the stories behind the places you visit is one of the best parts about traveling. Here’s some of my favorite places in Florence to experience the history and the allure of the beautiful city.

Le Gallerie degli Uffizi

Opening Hours: 8:15am - 9.30pm

Tickets: €25

You’ll find yourself in awe at the attention to detail that went into creating the present-day Uffizi Gallery. The building itself was originally built for use as office space in the 13th century, but the Medici’s love for art quickly overshadowed any official meeting. Art was how the Medici family displayed their power and wealth. Murals and carvings cover the walls, and visitors might feel overwhelmed trying to take it all in.

For those who thoroughly enjoy art, I would recommend having a few specific pieces that you would classify as a must-see. Otherwise, you could spend hours wandering the halls, and end up missing the things you would’ve enjoyed the most. The Uffizi Gallery isn’t just a museum, it’s a journey through the works of famous Renaissance masterminds.

Palazzo Vecchio

Opening Hours: 9am - 7pm

Tickets: €10, reduced ticket €8 for adults under 25

A skyline staple along Florence, the Palazzo Vecchio is a must-see for lovers of grand Italian architecture. Translated to “Old Palace” from Italian, the Palazzo Vecchio began construction in 1299, and has experienced several significant changes in that time. In 1540, the official seat of the Duke was moved to the Palazzo, signaling the security of Medici rule in the city. 

Walking through the halls of this beautiful castle, you’ll find lesser known works from famous artists. Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo both have frescos in the palace, facing each other. Michelangelo never finished his fresco because the Pope commissioned him to paint the Sistine Chapel in Rome instead. Knowing that story alone made me want to visit the palace, but the experience feels surreal. 

Each room is a grand piece of art, sometimes entirely different from the room before it. I spent hours in the halls, eventually making my way into the tall tower that offers a beautiful view of the Florentine skyline and nearby Tuscany hills. Gazing out at the buildings, I could see how this place could inspire so many people to create such beautiful pieces of art.

Ponte Vecchio

Opening Hours: 8am - 5pm

Tickets: Free to visit, prices vary at shops

As the sun set over the Arno River, it drapes one of Florence’s most prominent bridges in warm sunlight the color of honey. The magic of the city really shines during this Golden Hour, watching buildings come to life under a gentle evening glow. Ponte Vecchio was almost like a happy accident for me, stumbling through the streets without a sense of direction. The name means “Old Bridge” in Italian, and it is a medieval stone arch bridge with a marketplace built on top. It is also the only bridge in Florence spared from destruction during World War II.

While the bridge is unique today, building shops along bridges was once common practice. Typically, butchers, tanners, and farmers occupied the shops. Nowadays, jewelers, art dealers, and souvenir sellers occupy the Ponte Vecchio. You’ll be surrounded by tourists and street peddlers looking to distract you with a toy that shoots high in the air. Walking through Ponte Vecchio feels like being transported back in time to medieval Italy, and getting to experience the hustle and bustle of a Florentine marketplace. It’s here you’ll fall in love with Florence, and get to experience one of the many wonders the city offers.

Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze

Opening Hours: 9am - 6.45pm

Tickets: €16

One of the most popular destinations in Florence, the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze, has hosted many artists during its long history, remaining a key institution in art culture. The Academy, which means “academy and company of the arts of drawing” in Italian, originally founded in 1563. There were two parts: a guild for all working artists, and an academy to train a more select group of artists.

Most members of the Accademia were male, with notable names being Michelangelo, Bonzino and Giorgio Vasari. Artemisia Genitleschi was the first woman to be admitted. Today, the adjoining Galleria houses the original David statue. The halls of the academy flow with creative energy. It is evident how young artists over the centuries were inspired to perfect their craft within the very halls that now showcase their efforts. In rooms where soft sunlight bathes the art, it’s easy to imagine the artists who once walked the halls, allowing beauty and inspiration to fill every corner.

New Generation Hostel Florence

Price: €60-70 per night

I cannot talk about the history of Florence without shouting out my hotel as a unique historical spot you have to experience. This hostel is located in the chiesa di San Salvatore di Ognissanti, or “Church of All Saints,” which the Franciscans originally built in the 1250s. 

You live in older rooms, and there’s not much frill, but the grounds are beautiful. It’s worth noting that Botticelli, Carolina Bonaparte, and Amerigo Vespucci, the explorer who America is named after, are also buried there. Staying in a hostel with so much history and cultural relevance allows travelers to have a unique experience where every wall has witnessed centuries of art, faith, and discovery. 

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Florence was a dream destination for me, and I’m excited to make plans to visit it again one day, for a longer period. The energy in Florence was so inspiring, and I spent a lot of time writing, reflecting, and journaling during my time there. Being surrounded by so much history was one of my favorite things about being in Florence, but it felt extra special as an artist. I could connect with my personal fascination with Florence, as well as relate to the writers and creatives who have come here before me.

If you’re a history lover who likes to travel, follow along with me for my new series of travel recs for travelers just like you, where I recommend the historical goodies of the places I’ve visited (or would love to visit)!

Over a thousand years ago, a Muslim army landed at Gibraltar on April 30, 711 CE, and launched a seven-year military campaign that brought most of the Iberian peninsula under control of the Umayyad caliphate. The army, led by commander Tariq ibn Ziyadled, would gain control of major cities in the area as far north as the Pyrenees Mountains and southern France. The borders of al-Andalus, as the caliphate would eventually be called, would shift over the centuries before falling in 1492 to Castilian and Aragonese armies. During the 750 year rule in the Iberian peninsula, al-Andalus became a cultural melting pot of Muslim, Jewish, and Christian cultures, creating a lasting impact on science, art, and philosophy that would eventually grow into the Italian Renaissance.

Al-Andalus gained its reputation for a culture of coexistence, where Muslim, Jewish, and Christian populations coexisted peacefully. Historians can also describe this time period as the Islamic Golden Age and Jewish Golden Age, due to the major achievements and advancements that occurred during this time.

Map of al-Andalus. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art

The Unique Andalusian Culture

Under Muslim rule, Christians and Jews could freely practice their religion as dhimmis, or people of the book. During this time, dhimmis were required to pay a special tax, known as jizyah, for protection by the Islamic caliphate. During a time of religious persecution in other areas of the world, many Christians and Jews willingly paid this tax to ensure the protection of their lives and religions.

As Islamic rule continued, many Christians and Jews adopted Arabic culture, speaking the language and wearing Arab clothing. A unique fusion of identity occurred, with Christians referred to as Mozarabs. Mozarabic, a language that appeared on the peninsula, was a combination of Arabic, Latin, and other indigenous languages of the peninsula, and paved the way for modern Spanish. Today, the influence of al-Andalus intertwines Arabic and Spanish, with 4,000 Spanish words deriving directly from Arabic, making up 8% of the language. This fusion and coexistence allowed all three cultures to interact with each other throughout their daily lives, and many Christian and Jewish scholars were fluent in Arabic.

It is important to note that peace and coexistence did not always occur in al-Andalus, and the caliphate spent a majority of its existence warring against northern Christian towns. Still, the period is in direct contrast to the political climate and level of tolerance in Europe, and stands out as being a time when the three major religions operated together.

Textile Fragment, 13th Century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art

An Exchange of Knowledge and Ideas

While most of the European continent was embroiled in the Dark Ages post-collapse, the Iberian peninsula under Muslim rule was a place of positive multiculturalism. By the tenth century, al-Andalus was the dominant place in the world for knowledge, science, and philosophy. Scholars translated ancient Greek and Roman texts into Arabic, and Jewish scholars such as Ibn Gabirol and Maimonides wrote in Arabic.

The city of Córdoba was the biggest city in Europe at the time, with a population of 100,000 people. This amount of people in one place was unheard of, and the city relied on scientific advancements from scholars of all religious backgrounds. During this time, many achievements were the result of the multiculturalism that al-Andalus was known for, where people valued science and art.

Córdoba became an artistic and academic hub of the Islamic Golden Age, with the greatest universities and biggest libraries in Europe. At its height, the library in Córdoba held over 400,000 books, with works from Greek and Roman philosophers, Jewish scholars, and Muslim scientists. During the European Dark Ages, al-Andalus served as a repository of ancient knowledge and science. While violence and corruption spread across the continent, destroying Greek and Roman texts, al-Andalus safeguarded this knowledge by translating them into Arabic. This helped to establish a connection between the knowledge we had in antiquity to the Italian Renaissance. In a time where knowledge was either gatekept or lost throughout Europe, a majority of the population in al-Andalus could read.

Astronomy, medicine, and mathematics flourished in al-Andalus. People traveled from all over the world to study botany in Toledo, and the refining of the astrolabe by Jewish scholars would pave the way for the Age of Exploration that saw the discovery of the Americas by European explorers. Al-Andalus used its knowledge and advancements to create sophisticated tools and systems that helped the caliphate flourish.

The Great Mosque of Córdoba still stands today as a symbol of the cultural fusion that al-Andalus is known for. Built from the ruins of a Roman temple, on top of a Christian church, the Great Mosque is still in use today as a Catholic church. Arabic architecture even used canals and waterways as an ancient form of air-conditioning. The economy benefited from a productive agricultural system because of irrigation canals that are still in use today.

Al-Andalus also saw major advancements in poetry and literature. Knowledge was disseminated in rhyming form, sharing information on customs, traditions, and legislature. Arabic poetry became the primary form of literature, developing into a unique genre called muwashshah, which consisted of five stanzas alternating in a running rhyme. Today, Spain’s flamenco dance and music, drawing heavy inspiration from classic Andalusian music and the invention of the guitar in al-Andalus, are well-known.

Dialogue and the circulation of ideas dominated Andalusian culture in various languages. This spread impacted the spread of knowledge in subjects of science, math, art, language, poetry, architecture, and economics.

Madinat al-Zahra. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art

A Lasting Legacy

After significant political turmoil which led to the collapse of a united empire, al-Andalus was eventually overtaken by Christian armies coming from the north, and places like Córdoba, Toledo, and Granada eventually fell. Despite Christian Spain’s attempt to eradicate all traces of the Muslim empire, many areas of culture and language remain the legacy of the former jewel of the world.

After the fall of al-Andalus, scholars from all over Europe traveled to cultural centers in Córdoba, Toledo, and Granada in order to translate works from Arabic into Latin, Castilian Spanish, Italian, and other languages. These works eventually paved the way for the Italian Renaissance within a hundred years. The stronghold of Arabic literature allowed classical learning to flourish in Europe after the Dark Ages, and art, science, and culture were allowed to grow because of the impact of al-Andalus in the Iberian Peninsula.

The scientific advancements of al-Andalus also allowed the Age of Exploration to occur, since the invention of the astrolabe and food preservation paved the way for ships to make it across the Atlantic. The same year that al-Andalus fell, 1492, is well- known in the Americas for being the year Christopher Columbus, paid by the Spanish monarchy, first touched ground in the Caribbean. Without al-Andalus, his journey would not have been possible.

Andalusian astrolabe. Source: Wikimedia.

Although largely forgotten throughout history, or inappropriately referred to only as Moorish Spain, we should consider the impact that al-Andalus had on the modern world in history. When speaking only of its contributions, al-Andalus gave Europeans the tools they needed to be the dominant society in the world. From science and philosophy to literature, al-Andalus has a foot in the advancements seen during the Italian Renaissance and the eventual colonization of the Americas. The level of tolerance seen in al- Andalus is unparalleled worldwide and shows how peacefully coexisting with the major Abrahamic religions is possible. Not only coexistence, but working together to achieve such significant advancements gives al-Andalus a legacy unlike any other fallen empire.

On an otherwise cloudless August day in 79 CE, the earth exploded. Heavy black clouds and smoke rushed from the mountain, covering entire Roman cities in burning ash, forever changing the landscape of the Bay of Naples. Pompeii is the most famous of these cities, but few know about its counterpart, Herculaneum, further up the mountain. Its proximity to the mountain uniquely preserved the city, giving us a clear idea of daily Roman life and culture.

Overview of Herculaneum

Herculaneum was a medium-sized city with 4,000–5,000 inhabitants before the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79. Historians know little about the city before the eruption, except that it likely consisted primarily of Greek immigrants, and that its name comes from the Greek hero Hercules. A wealthy city, the major advantages of Herculaneum included its excellent climate and seaside position, growing into a holiday resort for wealthy landowners coming from Rome and Naples. The city included everything from expensive villas to public baths, and even a large theater.

An earthquake destroyed buildings in 62; these earthquakes increased in frequency over the following years. By the time of the 79 eruption, the city had not yet repaired the buildings, except for the large theater in the center of city. This told historians how much the citizens of Herculaneum included theater and entertainment in their daily lives.

Domestic altar in Herculaneum. Source: Wikimedia

The Eruption and Immediate Aftermath

In August 79, there had been several earthquakes in the days before the eruption, but nobody paid them much attention because earthquakes are still commonplace in the Campania region today. In the afternoon, a thunderous roar sounded throughout the valley, and soon it was as dark as night.

Pyroclastic flow of volcanic gas hit the city at a temperature of four hundred degrees, instantly killing those who had not escaped. For a long time, historians believed everyone escaped to Naples, but excavations in the 1980s found more than a hundred and twenty bodies on the ancient shoreline of the Bay of Naples. This showed that people were waiting at the docks to be saved, but help never came for these victims of the disaster.

The Forum in Pompeii, with Mt Vesuvius in the background. Source: Wikimedia

Rediscovery and Archaeological Significance

As time wore on, the memory of Herculaneum and Pompeii was lost. Any information about the cities was from contemporary authors of the time with no knowledge of where the cities could be.

In the 18th century, locals began to dig a well, instead uncovering part of the theater stage and launching a full excavation in 1738. Under the patronage of the King of Naples, workers produced diagrams and plans of the ruins, uncovered and documented numerous artifacts, and many of these artifacts are now on display in Naples museums.

Though the mud’s temperature, which buried Herculaneum, was hot enough to instantly kill everyone in the city, it was the perfect temperature for carbonizing organic materials. This made Herculaneum a gold mine for archaeologists and historians, because it preserved organic materials such as food, human waste, and wooden furniture.

Photo by Skyler Smith on Unsplash

Legacy and Modern-Day Relevance

Herculaneum’s discovery led to the development of archaeology, and allowed scientists to get a glimpse into the past in a way never seen before, and rarely seen since.

Archaeologists discovered over 1,800 fragments of scrolls in the Villa of Papyri, widely believed to have been owned by Julius Caesar’s father-in-law — the only surviving library from the ancient Greco-Roman world.

The discovery of both Herculaneum and Pompeii opened many doors to documenting daily life and culture in the Roman era, but Herculaneum stands out for its preservation and what historians have learned from the archaeological site.

Fresco in Herculaneum. Source: Wikimedia

Herculaneum is still being uncovered today, with over 75% of the city still buried up to sixty feet deep. The material the mud hardened into makes excavations difficult, but the work has uncovered many priceless items that have changed the way we view ancient life in the modern era. Today, history lovers can go on tours to visit both Herculaneum and Pompeii, getting their own glimpses into the past.